punctuate!
- Commas show which words belong together and which do not. They also separate two or more adjectives qualifying the same noun.
- Semi-colons are often avoided because people are unsure how to use them correctly. To some, they mark an elegant pause; to others a pretentious comma. They are used: to join two clauses which could stand as separate sentences yet are better shown as parts of a single sentence; and as a divider in compound lists.
- Colons are used to: (a) introduce lists; (b) introduce direct speech; and (c) connect two sentences where the second amplifies or qualifies the first.
- Verbs are words which usually express an action (come, go, decide) or a state (be, have, know). Intransitive verbs are verbs which cannot have a direct object (to sleep, to object).
- Quotation marks: use double quotes for direct speech, single quotes for foreign words, slang, technical terms etc. If the entire sentence is in quotes, the full stop goes inside the quotes; otherwise, it goes outside.
- Exclamation marks indicate emotion in direct speech. They should be avoided in business writing. They should not be used to indicate a command.
- Brackets enclose words of explanation added into the middle of a clause, to separate them from the clause they interrupt.
- Dashes are another form of parenthesis. They are also used to indicate an incomplete train of thought (I was on my way home – but that’s another story). They should not be used in place of a colon.
- Hyphens are used to form compound adjectives (up-to-date report) and fractions (two-thirds) but not to link an adverb and the adjective it modifies unless the result would be ambiguous (e.g. a black cab driver).
- Apostrophes indicate contraction (it is = it’s) or possession (EXCEPT belonging to it = its). Singular words ending in s take the singular apostrophe where the extra syllable would be pronounced (James’s); otherwise, the plural apostrophe (Mephistopheles’).
- Capital letters denote the name of a person, language, place or body, or the start of a sentence. In other cases, use lower case unless the result looks silly or confusing.
- Numbers: use words from one to nine, figures from 10 to 999,999 and a combination thereafter (1 million, 3 billion etc.). Do not start a sentence with a figure.